Who were the Haganah and Irgun?

The Haganah and Irgun were two key Jewish paramilitary organizations that played pivotal roles in the history of the Zionist movement and the eventual establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. Both organizations emerged during the British Mandate of Palestine (1920–1948) as responses to the complex political, social, and security challenges faced by the Jewish community (Yishuv) in the region. While they shared the common goal of securing a Jewish homeland, the Haganah and Irgun differed significantly in their strategies, tactics, and ideologies, leading to tensions and conflicts between them.

The Haganah: The Foundation of Israel’s Defense Forces

Origins and Development

The Haganah (“Defense” in Hebrew) was established in 1920 as a volunteer militia to protect Jewish settlements in Palestine from Arab attacks. Its creation was spurred by growing tensions between Jews and Arabs, particularly in the wake of the Balfour Declaration of 1917, in which Britain expressed support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.

Initially, the Haganah operated as a loosely organized and clandestine force, relying on limited resources and training. It was primarily defensive in nature, focusing on protecting Jewish communities and property rather than engaging in offensive operations. By the 1930s, the organization began to formalize its structure and expand its capabilities, with increased support from the Jewish Agency, the de facto government of the Yishuv.

Strategy and Tactics

The Haganah’s approach to security was largely shaped by its alliance with the British authorities during much of the Mandate period. While the British limited Jewish immigration and land purchases, the Haganah maintained a cautious policy of cooperation, seeking to strengthen the Yishuv’s position through legal and diplomatic means.

In the 1936–1939 Arab Revolt, the Haganah played a crucial role in defending Jewish communities against attacks. It also collaborated with the British in suppressing the revolt, a partnership that led to the establishment of the Special Night Squads, a joint British-Haganah unit led by Orde Wingate. These experiences helped the Haganah develop a more sophisticated military infrastructure, including intelligence gathering, arms smuggling, and training programs.

Transition to an Offensive Force

During World War II, the Haganah continued its cooperation with the British, forming the Palmach (acronym for "Plugot Mahatz," or "Striking Forces") in 1941. The Palmach served as the elite fighting force of the Haganah, engaging in sabotage operations against Axis powers in the Middle East. However, the post-war period marked a significant shift in the organization’s strategy.

As the Holocaust underscored the urgency of creating a Jewish homeland, the Haganah began to adopt more assertive tactics, particularly in response to British restrictions on Jewish immigration under the White Paper of 1939. The organization organized clandestine immigration efforts, known as Aliyah Bet, which sought to bring Holocaust survivors to Palestine despite British opposition.

By 1947, the Haganah had transformed into a well-organized and battle-hardened force. It played a leading role in the Jewish military campaign during the 1947–1948 civil war in Palestine and later became the backbone of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) following the declaration of Israeli independence in May 1948.

The Irgun: A More Militant Approach

Formation and Ideology

The Irgun (“Etzel,” an acronym for "Irgun Tsvai Leumi," or "National Military Organization") was established in 1931 as a splinter group from the Haganah. Its founders, led by Avraham Tehomi, were dissatisfied with the Haganah’s defensive and restrained approach to Arab violence. The Irgun adopted a more militant and offensive strategy, rooted in the Revisionist Zionism of Ze’ev Jabotinsky. Revisionist Zionism emphasized the urgent need for Jewish sovereignty over the entire Land of Israel, including both sides of the Jordan River.

Tactics and Operations

The Irgun’s tactics were characterized by a willingness to use force to achieve its objectives, including retaliatory attacks, bombings, and assassinations. It viewed violence as a necessary means to counter Arab resistance and pressure the British to relinquish control over Palestine. The organization’s most notable operations included:

1. Retaliatory Attacks: In response to Arab attacks during the 1936–1939 Arab Revolt, the Irgun carried out a series of reprisal raids on Arab villages and infrastructure. These actions often escalated tensions and drew criticism from both the British and the Jewish mainstream.

2. The King David Hotel Bombing (1946): One of the most infamous Irgun operations was the bombing of the British administrative headquarters at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem. The attack, which killed 91 people, was intended to disrupt British governance and force a withdrawal from Palestine. While the Irgun claimed it had issued warnings to evacuate the building, the high civilian death toll sparked widespread condemnation.

3. Attacks on British Personnel: The Irgun targeted British soldiers, police officers, and officials, seeking to undermine British authority and demonstrate the cost of continued occupation.

Relationship with the Haganah and Mainstream Zionism

The Irgun’s militant activities often put it at odds with the Haganah and the Jewish Agency, which feared that such actions would alienate international allies and harm the Zionist cause. The Haganah occasionally collaborated with the British to suppress Irgun activities, a policy known as the "Saison" (Hunting Season) in 1944–1945. During this period, Haganah members provided information to the British about Irgun operatives, leading to arrests and the disruption of Irgun operations.

Despite these tensions, the two groups occasionally cooperated, particularly during the final years of the British Mandate. In 1947, the Irgun, Haganah, and Lehi (another militant group) coordinated efforts in the fight against Arab forces and British targets as part of the broader struggle for independence.

Key Differences Between the Haganah and Irgun

While both the Haganah and Irgun shared the ultimate goal of establishing a Jewish state, their differences were stark:

1. Ideology: The Haganah was aligned with the mainstream Labor Zionist movement, advocating gradualism and diplomacy. The Irgun, influenced by Revisionist Zionism, prioritized immediate action and territorial maximalism.

2. Tactics: The Haganah initially focused on defensive measures, while the Irgun pursued offensive operations and targeted violence.

3. Relationship with the British: The Haganah often sought to cooperate with the British, especially during World War II, whereas the Irgun viewed the British as adversaries to be expelled by force.

4. Public Perception: The Haganah was generally seen as the legitimate representative of the Yishuv, while the Irgun’s methods were more controversial and divisive.

Legacy

The Haganah and Irgun each left a lasting impact on the history of Israel. The Haganah’s transformation into the Israel Defense Forces solidified its role as the cornerstone of the country’s military establishment. Its emphasis on organization, discipline, and broad public support laid the foundation for Israel’s defense strategy.

The Irgun, though smaller and more controversial, also contributed significantly to the struggle for independence. Its militant tactics and defiance of British authority helped to pressure the British into ending their mandate. Many former Irgun members, including Menachem Begin, who later became Israel’s prime minister, went on to play prominent roles in Israeli politics.

The legacy of these two organizations reflects the diversity of strategies and ideologies within the Zionist movement, highlighting the complexity of the struggle for Jewish statehood. Their histories continue to be studied and debated, offering valuable lessons on the interplay between ideology, strategy, and the pursuit of national liberation.